Chicago Style In-Text Citations
When it comes to academic writing, properly citing your sources is the best way to avoid plagiarism. The Chicago Manual of Style recommends two methods for in-text citations: the Author-Date system and the Notes and Bibliography system.
Choose one of these two citation systems and use it consistently throughout your text. List the full details of each source in a bibliography or reference list at the end. Be sure to pay attention to punctuation, such as commas and quotation marks.
The Basics of Chicago In-Text Citations
Chicago in-text citations are necessary for directing readers to any sources you quote, paraphrase, or reference in your writing. These citations are part of a larger system that includes a bibliography or reference list at the end of your document. We will discuss both the Notes and Bibliography system and the Author-Date system here so you can choose which to use and how to use it correctly.
Author-Date System
The Author-Date system is commonly used in the sciences, including social sciences. The system integrates citations directly into the text using parentheses. Endnotes or footnotes can be used for additional information but not for citations. All the details of the sources are listed in the reference list at the end of the document.
Each in-text citation must have a matching entry in the reference list. In-text citations in the Author-Date system provide immediate reference to the source, so readers can see where information comes from without interrupting the flow of the text. Plus, since in-text citations are brief and integrated into the text, they keep pages cleaner and more organized.
Format and Placement
In the Author-Date system, in-text citations appear in parentheses within the text. Each citation includes the author's last name, the year of publication, and, if applicable, a page number or page range.
Example:- (Stafford 2013, 41)
These citations can be placed at the end of the relevant sentence, before the period, or integrated into the sentence itself.
Example:- One researcher argues that “many healthcare professionals are not properly trained to combat the rising rates of obesity.” (Johnson 2011, 138).
- Nevertheless, Hawkes (2018, 131) contends that the study makes “a compelling case” for this plan of action.
When citing multiple sources in one place, separate them with semicolons.
Example:- Other researchers (Williams 2019, 70–78; Krauss 2018) have weighed in on the topic more recently...
Each in-text citation must correspond to a full reference entry in the bibliography. This list provides complete publication details, allowing readers to locate the original sources.
Notes and Bibliography System
The Notes and Bibliography system is preferred in humanities subjects like literature, history, and the arts. This method uses numbered footnotes or endnotes for citations, offering a different approach that some may find more flexible or less intrusive.
The Notes system is versatile and allows for detailed citations. A bibliography at the end of your paper provides full information on all the works you cited, as well as any other works you consulted Modern word-processing programs can handle footnotes and endnotes easily. They can automatically update and renumber your notes, ensuring proper placement.
Footnotes and Endnotes
In this system, a superscript number is placed at the end of the clause or sentence that needs a citation, following any punctuation.
Example:- Stafford argues that “the data is unconvincing.” ¹
- Hawkes contends that the study makes “a compelling case” for this plan of action. ²
These superscript numbers correspond to numbered footnotes at the bottom of the page or endnotes in a dedicated section at the end of the text. The citation details in the notes can be full or short, depending on whether it is the first or subsequent citation of the source.
Full and Short Notes
Full Note: The first time you cite a source, provide full publication details.
Example:• George Orwell, “Notes on Nationalism,” in Selected Essays, ed. Stefan Collini (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021), 23.
Short Note: For subsequent citations, use a shortened form.
Example:• Orwell, “Notes on Nationalism”, 23.
You can also use “ibid.” to refer to the same source as the previous note, but short notes are more common. Check your institution's guidelines to confirm which method to use.
Footnotes or Endnotes?
Footnotes are placed at the bottom of the same page where the citation is provided. They are common in scholarly works because they allow readers to quickly check references without leaving the page. However, footnotes can take up a lot of space, especially if there are many citations on one page.
Endnotes are placed at the end of a chapter, article, or book. They solve the space issue of footnotes but are not as convenient for quick reference since readers have to flip to the end of the document to see them. In digital formats, hyperlinks can make endnotes easier to navigate.
There is no right or wrong choice between footnotes and endnotes. It often comes down to personal preference and how many citations you need to include. Consider how accessible you want your citations to be for your readers and how much space you have on your pages. Consistency is key—stick to one format throughout your document.
Special Cases in Chicago Citations
Academic writing often involves sources with varying details, such as multiple authors or missing information. Here is how to handle some common scenarios.
Multiple Authors
For sources with two or three authors, list all names.
Example:- (Williams and Krauss 2018, 119)
- Williams, Krauss, and Woodrell, “Literature Review,” 127–134.
When a source has four or more authors, you should use "et al." after the first author’s name.
Example:- (Woodrell et al. 2016)
- Woodrell et al., “Literature Review,” 127–134.
Missing Information
Sometimes, you may encounter sources that lack certain details like page numbers, publication dates, or authors. Here is how to handle these situations:
1. No Page Number
If the source does not have page numbers or you are referring to the general argument, omit the page number.
Example:- (Stafford 2016)
For specific parts of the text, use other locators like paragraphs or chapters.
Example:- (Stafford 2016, under “Results”)
- Stafford, “Literature Review,” chap. 2.1.
2. No Publication Date
If the source does not have a publication date, use “n.d.” (no date).
Example:- (Hawkes n.d.)
- Hawkes, Data Analysis (New York: Norton, n.d.), 293.
3. No Author
When no specific author is listed, cite the organization that published the source.
Example:- (PaperTyper 2022)
- PaperTyper, "General Guide to Chicago Style.”
Conclusion
Choosing between the Author-Date and Notes and Bibliography systems in the Chicago Manual of Style depends on your field of study and personal preference. Each system offers flexibility in placement and format, but consistency is important.